The Combination of Immune Checkpoint Blockade with Tumor Vessel Normalization as a Promising Therapeutic Strategy for Breast Cancer: An Overview of Preclinical and Clinical Studies

immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have a modest clinical activity when administered as monotherapy against breast cancer (BC), the most common malignancy in women. novel combinatorial strategies are currently being investigated to overcome resistance to ICIs and promote antitumor immune responses in a greater proportion of BC patients. recent studies have shown that the BC abnormal vasculature is associated with immune suppression in patients, and hampers both drug delivery and immune effector cell trafficking to tumor nests. thus, strategies directed at normalizing (i.e., at remodeling and stabilizing) the immature, abnormal tumor vessels are receiving much attention. In particular, the combination of ICIs with tumor vessel normalizing agents is thought to hold great promise for the treatment of BC patients. Indeed, a compelling body of evidence indicates that the addition of low doses of antiangiogenic drugs to ICIs substantially improves antitumor immunity. In this review, we outline the impact that the reciprocal interactions occurring between tumor angiogenesis and immune cells have on the immune evasion and clinical progression of BC. In addition, we overview preclinical and clinical studies that are presently evaluating the therapeutic effectiveness of combining ICIs with antiangiogenic drugs in BC patients.