In this thesis the principle of contractual equilibrium is studied, focusing on two legal systems: Turkish legal system and the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts [hereafter refereed as Principles or UNIDROIT Principles]. This thesis is composed of three principal chapters. In the first chapter, the story of evolution of the principle of contractual equilibrium is examined. It starts from classical Islamic Law and the relevant articles of the Mecelle, and continues with the analysis of the evolution of this principle in the roman tradition, until post liberal codifications. In the second chapter, institutions relating to the equilibrium of undertakings at the moment of the conclusion of the contract are studied; whereas in the third chapter institutions relating to the equilibrium of undertakings in the performance phase of the contract are analysed. In the second and third chapters after providing a general overview of the institutions and a brief presentation of the general lines of the relevant regulations in comparative law, international codifications and arbitral case-law are examined. In the following, the provisions of the UNIDROIT Principles are studied on the basis of comparative analyses. This methodology allows us to better evaluate the provisions and the case-law regarding the principle of contractual equilibrium in the context of Turkish Law. The second and the third chapters are concluded with detailed analysis of the evolution and application of the institutions relating to the principle of contractual equilibrium in Turkish Law. Most part of these analyses is dedicated to Turkish case-law with particular regard to the periods of economic crisis when these institutions are most developed. The methodology of the thesis is not only based on the chronological order of the phases of the formation and performance of a contract, but also on the chronological order of the evolution of the principle of contractual equilibrium. The reason why the evolution of this principle is studied until post liberal codifications in the first chapter is that the institutions relating to the original equilibrium in the context of post liberal codifications studied in the second chapter represent the continuation of this evolution. In conformity with this chronological order, the institutions relating to the contractual equilibrium in the performance phase studied in the third chapter represent a further evolution of the principle of contractual equilibrium. In the parts dedicated to Turkish law and case-law, the institutions studied in the parts dedicated to comparative law and international commercial law which had great influence on Turkish Law are often referred. Now let us come to a more detailed analysis of the three principal chapters: In the first chapter the principle of equilibrium of undertakings is briefly studied under Islamic Law and Roman Law in order to show the parallelism between the approaches of these two traditions. This principle is of fundamental character in both systems. However, the influence of liberalism in the 18th and 19th Centuries damaged the evolution of this principle and, as a result, we may find articles which not only deny this principle but also contradict it in the context of the codifications of the era. One of these liberal codifications is the Ottoman Mecelle which brings provisions of the articles 165 and 356 detaching from the classical Islamic Law’s rule of riba. According to these articles, a disparity between the undertakings which is not excessive is always legitimate; moreover, an excessive disparity is also legitimate if not combined with fraud. In the light of the political conditions in which the Mecelle was drafted, this difference between classical Islamic Law and the Mecelle is explained by the influence of liberalism and of French Law. In the second sub-chapter of the first chapter dedicated to the evolution of the principle of contractual equilibrium in the Roman tradition, the impacts of the liberal thought on the codifications of the era are studied in detail. In the second chapter, first, the institutions relating to the original equilibrium in post liberal codifications and the development of the said principle in international commercial law are studied with particular regard to the economical and political conditions of the 20th Century. In the sub-section dedicated to the article 3.10 of the UNIDROIT Principles titled “gross disparity,” it is maintained that this article reflects a sensibility towards contractual justice that emerged in the context of international commercial law in the last decades. In the third and the last sub-chapter of the second chapter, the position of Turkish Law in respect of original equilibrium and the institution of gabin are analyzed with particular regard to recent case-law. Although the article 21 of the Turkish Code of Obligations [C.O.] which regulates this subject was adopted from the Swiss C.O. of 1911, the latter is not studied in a different section for two reasons: first, in order to avoid repetition of the study of provisions which are identical; and second, in order to emphasize the differences between Turkish Law and Swiss Law rather than the similarities. For providing a more comprehensive study of the comparison between Turkish Law and Swiss Law, the points in which they differ are examined in this sub-chapter. Although the provisions regarding the original equilibrium are identical in Turkish and Swiss laws, application of the article 21 of C.O. is very different in Turkish case-law. This article requires an objective element (an evident disparity between undertakings) and one of the subjective elements (distressed situation, improvidence or inexperience of the disadvantaged party) for allowing rescission. The differences between Turkish Law and Swiss Law emerge in subjective elements: first of all, according to Turkish Law two of these elements, improvidence and inexperience are not applicable to commercial transactions. The reason of this that, differing from Swiss Law, Turkish Law makes a distinction between civil transactions and commercial ones. According to the article 20 of the Turkish Commercial Code [T.C.C.] which was adopted from the German Commercial Code, “[e]very businessman shall behave as a foresighted businessman in his affairs.” For this reason, in Turkish Law, a merchant party cannot rely on his own improvidence or inexperience to rescind the contract. The second difference between Turkish Law and Swiss Law is that Turkish judiciary brought another subjective element which is “the conscience of benefiting from the weakness of the other party.” These differences of Turkish law brought it to a more rigid position in the application of the article 21 of the C.O. than the position of Swiss Law. The limits of this rigidity seem to be outrun by the judiciary in periods of economic crisis, in particular, in the economical and financial crisis of 2001. With the influence of the political crisis of 21 February 2001, devaluation in the Turkish Lira had taken place and overnight interests had reached 199% in a night. Banks had increased the interests because of the lack of liquidity; but they did not have enough resources to pay these interests, and their debts were guaranteed by the State. At the beginning of 2000’s, many actions were brought against the banks which could not pay the interests that they had promised. In these actions the banks had revealed that when they promised these interests they were in a distressed situation, and thus, the promised interests constituted gabin in the sense of article 21 C.O. Turkish High Court affirmed this expansive interpretation of “distressed situation” in order to enable the banks to rescind these contracts and a case-law is established on the grounds of this interpretation. The second chapter concludes with a study of this case-law and of the provision of the new draft C.O. regarding the original equilibrium which is drafted in the light of the case-law established in the period of economic crisis. The third -and the last- chapter starts with a study of general theory of the institutions regarding supervening disequilibrium. This chapter is more explanatory than the second chapter, because institutions which emerged in the 20th Century and which are still in evolution are studied. Although there were already some comparative studies on this issue, the recent developments had created a need for a more up-to-date study to include also the 2001 reform in the German Civil Code, the modifications in the 2004 edition of the UNIDROIT Principles, arbitral case-law and Turkish Law. This study is the most detailed study on the relevant provisions of the UNIDROIT Principles so far (Chapter 6.2.), and the first study which covers also the related case-law. In the sub-chapter dedicated to Turkish doctrines regarding supervening disequilibrium, first of all, the influence of German Law and case-law is studied. This influence is mainly based on historical reasons; but the fact that there is no any general provision regarding this issue in Turkish and Swiss codes has also leaded Turkish judiciary to use the German doctrine of Wegfall der Geschäftsgrundlage. This doctrine, called işlem temelinin çökmesi in Turkish, is the most used doctrine regarding supervening disequilibrium in Turkish case-law. However, Turkish judiciary has also followed the model of Swiss judiciary which uses more general institutions such as rebus sic stantibus or good faith in order to give a remedy in the cases of supervening disequilibrium in the absence of a general provision on this issue. This brought to the application of the objective theory, which focuses on the equilibrium of undertakings, with reference to the subjective theory of Wegfall der Geschäftsgrundlage, which focuses, instead, on presumptions of the parties’ assumptions at the time of conclusion of the contract. The only provision in Turkish and Swiss codes regarding supervening disequilibrium is the second paragraph of the article 365 of the C.O. (art. 373 of the Swiss C.O.), which is a specific provision for construction contracts. Differing from Swiss case-law in Turkish case-law this provision is not applied to other types of contracts through analogy. Another difference between the approaches of Swiss and Turkish case laws is that Turkish courts require stricter conditions to apply this paragraph because of the influence of the article 20 of the T.C.C. However, the fact that the economic crises of 1994 and 2001 distorted equilibriums of many long term contracts constrained the Turkish High Court to take a more moderate position. For this reason, the Turkish High Court used the institution of uyarlama (adaptation) especially in letting contracts and in credit contracts, referring to this remedy as a principle, and referring also to other doctrines in comparative law. In the sub-chapter dedicated to Turkish case-law, decisions of the Turkish High Court regarding letting and credit contracts are studied in detail and it is observed that the Turkish judiciary took again a strict position in the application of the doctrines regarding supervening disequilibrium since 2003 because of the stability reached in macroeconomic terms. This chapter concludes with an analysis of the article 137 of the new draft C.O. which regulates supervening disequilibrium. This article is inspired from the new paragraph 313 of the German Civil Code and it will bring Turkish Law one step closer to the UNIDROIT Principles. When this draft will be enacted, this provision will be the first general provision on supervening disequilibrium in Turkish Law. The thesis concludes with the observation that the principle of contractual equilibrium has always been one of the most fundamental principles in both Islamic and Roman legal traditions and on both national and transnational levels; and the relevance of this principle in periods of economic crises is emphasized.
In questa tesi si esamina il principio dell’equilibrio contrattuale focalizzandosi su due sitemi: il sistema giuridico Turco ed i Principi UNIDROIT riguardanti Contratti Commerciali Internazionali [Principi, o Principi UNIDROIT]. Questa tesi è composta da tre capitoli principali. Nel primo capitolo, si analizza il percorso storico dell’evoluzione del principio dell’equilibrio contrattuale. Si comincia dal diritto musulmano classico e le disposizioni della Mecelle, in seguito si analizza l’evoluzione del detto principio nella tradizione romanistica fino alle codificazioni post-liberali. Nel secondo capitolo si studia le istituzioni relative all’equilibrio delle prestazioni al momento della conclusione del contratto, mentre nel terzo capitolo si analizza le istituzioni relative all’equilibrio delle prestazioni nella fase dell’adempimento. Nei capitoli due e tre, dopo di una panoramica sulle teorie generali delle istituzioni ed una breve disamina delle linee generali dei regolamenti rilevanti nel diritto comparato, si studia le codificazioni internazionali e la giurisprudenza arbitrale. In seguito, si studia le disposizioni dei Principi UNIDROIT in base ai parametri comparatistici. Questa metodologia ci permette di valutare meglio le disposizioni e la giurisprudenza relative al principio dell’equilibrio contrattuale nel contesto del diritto turco. I capitoli due e tre si concludano con analisi dettagliate dell’evoluzione e l’applicazione delle istituzioni relative al principio dell’equilibrio contrattuale nel diritto turco. La gran parte di queste analisi sono dedicate alla giurisprudenza turca con particolare riguardo ai periodi di crisi economiche quando le dette istutizioni si sono sviluppati di più. La metodologia della tesi non si basa solo all’ordine cronologico delle fasi della formazione de dell’adempimento del contratto, ma anche all’ordine cronologico dell’evoluzione del principio dell’equilibrio contrattuale. Il motivo perché si studia l’evoluzione del detto principio fino alle codificazioni post liberali nel primo capitolo è che le istituzioni relative all’equilibrio originario nel contesto delle codificazioni post liberali studiate nel secondo capitolo rappresentano il seguito di questo evoluzione. In conformità a questo ordino cronologico, le istituzioni relative all’equilibrio contrattuale nella fase dell’adempimento studiate nel terzo capitolo rappresentono un’ulteriore evoluzione del principio dell’equilibrio contrattuale. Nelle parti dedicate al diritto ed alla giurisprudenza turca ci si ritorna spesso alle istituzioni studiate nelle parti dedicate al diritto comparato ed al diritto del commercio internazionale che hanno avuto grande influenza sul diritto turco. Veniamo all’analisi più dettagliata dei tre capitoli principali: Nel primo capitolo si studia brevemente il principio dell’equilibrio delle prestazioni nel diritto musulmano classico e nella tradizione romanistica al fine di mostrare il parallelismo fra gli approcci di questi due. Questo principio è un principio fondamentale per entrambi i sistemi. Tuttavia, l’influenza del liberalismo dei XVIII e XIX secoli colpisce l’evoluzione del detto principio e nelle codificazioni dell’epoca, si trovano delle disposizioni che non solo negano questo principio ma anche lo contradicono. Una di queste codificazioni liberali è la Mecelle ottomana che porta gli articoli 165 e 356 che si staccano dal divieto del riba del diritto musulmano classico. Secondo questi articoli una sproporzione fra le prestazioni che non è eccessiva è leggittima in ogni caso; e una sproporzione eccessiva fra le prestazioni è anche legittima se non è unita al dolo. Sotto la luce delle condizioni politiche in cui la Mecelle è stata redatta, si spiega questa differenza fra il diritto musulmano classico e la Mecelle con l’influenza del liberalismo e del diritto francese. Nella seconda parte del primo capitolo dedicata all’evoluzione dell’equilibrio contrattuale nella tradizione romanistica si studiano in dettaglio gli effetti del pensiero liberale sulle codificazioni dell’epoca. Nel secondo capitolo si analizza innanzitutto le istituzioni relative allo squilibrio originario nelle codificazioni post liberali e lo svolgimento del detto principio nel diritto del commercio internazionale con particolare riguarda alle condizioni economiche e politiche del XX secolo. Nella parte dedicata all’articolo 3.10 dei Principi UNIDROIT intitolato “eccessivo squilibrio,” si sostiene la tesi che questo articolo rappresenta un’inclinazione verso la giustizia contrattuale emersa nel contesto del diritto del commercio internazionale negli ultimi decenni. Nella terza ed ultima parte del secondo capitolo si analizza la posizione del diritto turco nello squilibrio originario e l’istituzione del gabin con particolare riguarda alla giurisprudenza recente. Sebbene l’articolo 21 del Codice delle Obbligazioni [C.O.] turco sulla materia sia mutuato dal C.O. svizzero del 1911, non si studia il diritto svizzero sotto un diverso capitolo per due motivi: primo, per evitare la ripetizione degli ordinamenti che sono uguali, e secondo, per accentuare le differenze fra il diritto turco ed il diritto svizzero piuttosto che le assomiglianze. Al fine di poter fornire una lettura più approfondita della comparazione fra il diritto svizzero ed il diritto turco si esaminano in questa parte i punti in cui questi due si staccano. Sebbene le disposizioni sullo squilibrio originario del diritto svizzero e del diritto turco siano uguali, l’applicazione dell’articolo 21 del C.O. è molto differente nella giurisprudenza turca. Questo articolo richiede un elemento oggettivo (la sproporzione evidente fra le prestazioni) ed uno degli elementi soggettivi (lo stato di necessità, la leggerezza o l’inesperienza della parte svantaggiata) per riconoscere il diritto alla rescissione. Le differenze fra il diritto turco ed il diritto svizzero emergono negli elementi soggettivi: innanzitutto, secondo il diritto turco due di questi elementi soggettivi, la leggerezza e l’inesperienza, non si applicano alle transazioni commerciali. La ragione di ciò è che, differendo dal diritto svizzero, il diritto turco fa una distinzione fra le transazioni civili e quelle commerciali. Secondo l’articolo 20 del Codice Commerciale turco [C.C.T.] che è mutuato dal Codice Commerciale tedesco, “[o]gni commerciante deve trattare come un commerciante avveduto negli affari del suo ramo.” Perciò, nel diritto turco, un commerciante non può eccepire la sua leggerezza o la sua inesperienza per rescindere il contratto. La seconda differenza fra il diritto turco ed il diritto svizzero è che la giurisprudenza turca ha portato un altro elemento soggettivo che è “la volontà di approfittare della deficienza dell’altra parte.” Queste differenze del diritto turco l’hanno portato ad una posizione più rigida nell’applicazione dell’articolo 21 del C.O. rispetto a quella del diritto svizzero. I limiti di questa rigidità sembrano essere superati dalla giurisprudenza nei periodi di crisi economiche, ed in particolare nella crisi economica e finanziaria del 2001. Con l’influenza della crisi politica del 21 Febbraio 2001, c’era stata una svalutazione della lira turca e gli interessi overnight delle banche avevano raggiunto il 199% in una notte. Le banche avevano accresciuto gli interessi a causa della mancanza di liquidità; però non avevano abbastanza risorse per pagare questi interessi, e i loro debiti erano garantiti dallo stato. All’inizio degli anni 2000, tantissimi procedimenti erano stati avviati contro le banche che non avevano potuto pagare gli interessi promessi. In questi procedimenti le banche avevano rilevato che quando avevano promesso questi interessi, erano in una situazione di stato di necessità a causa della mancanza di liquidità, e perciò gli interessi promessi costituivano gabin nel senso dell’articolo 21 del C.O. La Corte di Cassazione turca ha adottato questa interpretazione espansiva dello “stato di necessità” per riconoscere il diritto alla rescissione delle banche e si è formata una giurisprudenza su questa interpretazione. Il secondo capitolo si conclude con uno studio di questa giurisprudenza e della disposizione del progetto per il nuovo C.O. relativa allo squilibrio originario che è stata redatta sotto la luce della giurisprudenza formata nel periodo di crisi economica. Il terzo ed ultimo capitolo inizia con uno studio della teoria generale delle istituzioni relative allo squilibrio sopravvenuto. Questo capitolo è più esplicativo rispetto al secondo capitolo perché si tratta delle istituzioni emerse nel XX secolo e che sono ancora in fieri. Sebbene ci siano già alcuni studi comparatistici sulla materia, i recenti sviluppi facevano sentire la mancanza di uno studio più aggiornato, che include anche la riforma del 2001 del Codice Civile Tedesco, le modificazioni nella versione 2004 dei Principi UNIDROIT, la giurisprudenza arbitrale e la giurisprudenza turca. Nella parte dedicata alle dottrine turche riguardanti lo squilibrio sopravvenuto si studia, innanzitutto, l’influenza del diritto e della giurisprudenza tedesca. Questa influenza si basa piuttosto sui motivi storici; però, anche il fatto che non ci sia nessuna disposizione generale sullo squilibrio sopravvenuto nei codici svizzero e turco ha costretto la giurisprudenza turca a riferirsi alla dottrina tedesca del Wegfall der Geschäftsgrundlage. Questa dottrina, chiamata işlem temelinin çökmesi in turco, è la dottrina che la giurisprudenza turca utilizza più spesso. Tuttavia la giurisprudenza turca ha seguito anche il modello della giurisprudenza svizzera che utilizza le istituzioni più generali come quella del rebus sic stantibus o della buona fede per riconoscere un rimedio nei casi di squilibrio sopravvenuto nella mancanza di una disposizione generale sulla materia. Ciò ha portato ad un’ applicazione della teoria oggettiva, che si focalizza sull’equilibrio delle prestazioni, con riferimento alla teoria soggettiva del Wegfall der Geschäftsgrundlage, che si focalizza invece sulle presupposizioni delle parti al momento della stipula del contratto. L’unica disposizione nei codici svizzero e turco relativa allo squilibrio sopravvenuto è il secondo paragrafo dell’articolo 365 C.O. (art. 373 C.O. svizzero), che è una disposizione specifica ai contratti d’appalto. Differendo dalla giurisprudenza svizzera, la giurisprudenza turca non applica questa disposizione agli altri tipi di contratto tramite l’analogia. Un’altra differenza fra le posizioni delle giurisprudenze svizzera e turca è che la giurisprudenza turca richiede delle condizioni più stringenti per applicare questo paragrafo a causa dell’influenza dell’articolo 20 C.C.T. Tuttavia il fatto che le crisi economiche del 1994 e del 2001 abbiano colpito l’equilibrio di molti contratti a lunga durata ha costretto la Corte di Cassazione turca a prendere una posizione più moderata. Per questo motivo, la Corte di Cassazione ha utilizzato l’istituzione del uyarlama (adattamento) in particolare nei contratti di locazione e di credito riferendo a questo rimedio come un principio, riferendosi anche alle altre dottrine nel diritto comparato. Nella parte dedicata alla giurisprudenza turca si studiano in dettaglio le decisioni della Corte di Cassazione relative ai contratti di locazione e di credito, e si osserva che la giurisprudenza turca ha preso di nuovo una posizione rigida nell’applicazione delle dottrine relative allo squilibrio sopravvenuto dal 2003 a causa della stabilità raggiunta dal quadro macroeconomico. Questa parte si conclude con lo studio della disposizione dell’articolo 137 del progetto per il nuovo C.O., che regola lo squilibrio sopravvenuto. Questo articolo è stato ispirato dal nuovo paragrafo 313 del Codice Civile tedesco e porterà il diritto turco un passo più vicino ai Principi UNIDROIT. Quando questo progetto sarà codificato, questa disposizione sarà il primo articolo generale sullo squilibrio sopravvenuto nel diritto turco. La tesi si conclude con l’osservazione che il principio dell’equilibrio contrattuale è sempre stato uno dei principi più fondamentali in entrambe le tradizioni giuridiche musulmana e romanistica e ad entrambi il livello nazionale ed il livello transnazionale e si sottolinea l’importanza del detto principio in particolare nei periodi di crisi economiche.
Yildirim, A.c. (2009). Equilibrio contrattuale nei principi UNIDROIT e nel diritto turco.
Equilibrio contrattuale nei principi UNIDROIT e nel diritto turco
YILDIRIM, AHMET CEMIL
2009-03-05
Abstract
In this thesis the principle of contractual equilibrium is studied, focusing on two legal systems: Turkish legal system and the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts [hereafter refereed as Principles or UNIDROIT Principles]. This thesis is composed of three principal chapters. In the first chapter, the story of evolution of the principle of contractual equilibrium is examined. It starts from classical Islamic Law and the relevant articles of the Mecelle, and continues with the analysis of the evolution of this principle in the roman tradition, until post liberal codifications. In the second chapter, institutions relating to the equilibrium of undertakings at the moment of the conclusion of the contract are studied; whereas in the third chapter institutions relating to the equilibrium of undertakings in the performance phase of the contract are analysed. In the second and third chapters after providing a general overview of the institutions and a brief presentation of the general lines of the relevant regulations in comparative law, international codifications and arbitral case-law are examined. In the following, the provisions of the UNIDROIT Principles are studied on the basis of comparative analyses. This methodology allows us to better evaluate the provisions and the case-law regarding the principle of contractual equilibrium in the context of Turkish Law. The second and the third chapters are concluded with detailed analysis of the evolution and application of the institutions relating to the principle of contractual equilibrium in Turkish Law. Most part of these analyses is dedicated to Turkish case-law with particular regard to the periods of economic crisis when these institutions are most developed. The methodology of the thesis is not only based on the chronological order of the phases of the formation and performance of a contract, but also on the chronological order of the evolution of the principle of contractual equilibrium. The reason why the evolution of this principle is studied until post liberal codifications in the first chapter is that the institutions relating to the original equilibrium in the context of post liberal codifications studied in the second chapter represent the continuation of this evolution. In conformity with this chronological order, the institutions relating to the contractual equilibrium in the performance phase studied in the third chapter represent a further evolution of the principle of contractual equilibrium. In the parts dedicated to Turkish law and case-law, the institutions studied in the parts dedicated to comparative law and international commercial law which had great influence on Turkish Law are often referred. Now let us come to a more detailed analysis of the three principal chapters: In the first chapter the principle of equilibrium of undertakings is briefly studied under Islamic Law and Roman Law in order to show the parallelism between the approaches of these two traditions. This principle is of fundamental character in both systems. However, the influence of liberalism in the 18th and 19th Centuries damaged the evolution of this principle and, as a result, we may find articles which not only deny this principle but also contradict it in the context of the codifications of the era. One of these liberal codifications is the Ottoman Mecelle which brings provisions of the articles 165 and 356 detaching from the classical Islamic Law’s rule of riba. According to these articles, a disparity between the undertakings which is not excessive is always legitimate; moreover, an excessive disparity is also legitimate if not combined with fraud. In the light of the political conditions in which the Mecelle was drafted, this difference between classical Islamic Law and the Mecelle is explained by the influence of liberalism and of French Law. In the second sub-chapter of the first chapter dedicated to the evolution of the principle of contractual equilibrium in the Roman tradition, the impacts of the liberal thought on the codifications of the era are studied in detail. In the second chapter, first, the institutions relating to the original equilibrium in post liberal codifications and the development of the said principle in international commercial law are studied with particular regard to the economical and political conditions of the 20th Century. In the sub-section dedicated to the article 3.10 of the UNIDROIT Principles titled “gross disparity,” it is maintained that this article reflects a sensibility towards contractual justice that emerged in the context of international commercial law in the last decades. In the third and the last sub-chapter of the second chapter, the position of Turkish Law in respect of original equilibrium and the institution of gabin are analyzed with particular regard to recent case-law. Although the article 21 of the Turkish Code of Obligations [C.O.] which regulates this subject was adopted from the Swiss C.O. of 1911, the latter is not studied in a different section for two reasons: first, in order to avoid repetition of the study of provisions which are identical; and second, in order to emphasize the differences between Turkish Law and Swiss Law rather than the similarities. For providing a more comprehensive study of the comparison between Turkish Law and Swiss Law, the points in which they differ are examined in this sub-chapter. Although the provisions regarding the original equilibrium are identical in Turkish and Swiss laws, application of the article 21 of C.O. is very different in Turkish case-law. This article requires an objective element (an evident disparity between undertakings) and one of the subjective elements (distressed situation, improvidence or inexperience of the disadvantaged party) for allowing rescission. The differences between Turkish Law and Swiss Law emerge in subjective elements: first of all, according to Turkish Law two of these elements, improvidence and inexperience are not applicable to commercial transactions. The reason of this that, differing from Swiss Law, Turkish Law makes a distinction between civil transactions and commercial ones. According to the article 20 of the Turkish Commercial Code [T.C.C.] which was adopted from the German Commercial Code, “[e]very businessman shall behave as a foresighted businessman in his affairs.” For this reason, in Turkish Law, a merchant party cannot rely on his own improvidence or inexperience to rescind the contract. The second difference between Turkish Law and Swiss Law is that Turkish judiciary brought another subjective element which is “the conscience of benefiting from the weakness of the other party.” These differences of Turkish law brought it to a more rigid position in the application of the article 21 of the C.O. than the position of Swiss Law. The limits of this rigidity seem to be outrun by the judiciary in periods of economic crisis, in particular, in the economical and financial crisis of 2001. With the influence of the political crisis of 21 February 2001, devaluation in the Turkish Lira had taken place and overnight interests had reached 199% in a night. Banks had increased the interests because of the lack of liquidity; but they did not have enough resources to pay these interests, and their debts were guaranteed by the State. At the beginning of 2000’s, many actions were brought against the banks which could not pay the interests that they had promised. In these actions the banks had revealed that when they promised these interests they were in a distressed situation, and thus, the promised interests constituted gabin in the sense of article 21 C.O. Turkish High Court affirmed this expansive interpretation of “distressed situation” in order to enable the banks to rescind these contracts and a case-law is established on the grounds of this interpretation. The second chapter concludes with a study of this case-law and of the provision of the new draft C.O. regarding the original equilibrium which is drafted in the light of the case-law established in the period of economic crisis. The third -and the last- chapter starts with a study of general theory of the institutions regarding supervening disequilibrium. This chapter is more explanatory than the second chapter, because institutions which emerged in the 20th Century and which are still in evolution are studied. Although there were already some comparative studies on this issue, the recent developments had created a need for a more up-to-date study to include also the 2001 reform in the German Civil Code, the modifications in the 2004 edition of the UNIDROIT Principles, arbitral case-law and Turkish Law. This study is the most detailed study on the relevant provisions of the UNIDROIT Principles so far (Chapter 6.2.), and the first study which covers also the related case-law. In the sub-chapter dedicated to Turkish doctrines regarding supervening disequilibrium, first of all, the influence of German Law and case-law is studied. This influence is mainly based on historical reasons; but the fact that there is no any general provision regarding this issue in Turkish and Swiss codes has also leaded Turkish judiciary to use the German doctrine of Wegfall der Geschäftsgrundlage. This doctrine, called işlem temelinin çökmesi in Turkish, is the most used doctrine regarding supervening disequilibrium in Turkish case-law. However, Turkish judiciary has also followed the model of Swiss judiciary which uses more general institutions such as rebus sic stantibus or good faith in order to give a remedy in the cases of supervening disequilibrium in the absence of a general provision on this issue. This brought to the application of the objective theory, which focuses on the equilibrium of undertakings, with reference to the subjective theory of Wegfall der Geschäftsgrundlage, which focuses, instead, on presumptions of the parties’ assumptions at the time of conclusion of the contract. The only provision in Turkish and Swiss codes regarding supervening disequilibrium is the second paragraph of the article 365 of the C.O. (art. 373 of the Swiss C.O.), which is a specific provision for construction contracts. Differing from Swiss case-law in Turkish case-law this provision is not applied to other types of contracts through analogy. Another difference between the approaches of Swiss and Turkish case laws is that Turkish courts require stricter conditions to apply this paragraph because of the influence of the article 20 of the T.C.C. However, the fact that the economic crises of 1994 and 2001 distorted equilibriums of many long term contracts constrained the Turkish High Court to take a more moderate position. For this reason, the Turkish High Court used the institution of uyarlama (adaptation) especially in letting contracts and in credit contracts, referring to this remedy as a principle, and referring also to other doctrines in comparative law. In the sub-chapter dedicated to Turkish case-law, decisions of the Turkish High Court regarding letting and credit contracts are studied in detail and it is observed that the Turkish judiciary took again a strict position in the application of the doctrines regarding supervening disequilibrium since 2003 because of the stability reached in macroeconomic terms. This chapter concludes with an analysis of the article 137 of the new draft C.O. which regulates supervening disequilibrium. This article is inspired from the new paragraph 313 of the German Civil Code and it will bring Turkish Law one step closer to the UNIDROIT Principles. When this draft will be enacted, this provision will be the first general provision on supervening disequilibrium in Turkish Law. The thesis concludes with the observation that the principle of contractual equilibrium has always been one of the most fundamental principles in both Islamic and Roman legal traditions and on both national and transnational levels; and the relevance of this principle in periods of economic crises is emphasized.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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