Pre-processing history dependent foaming behavior and morphing of thermoplastic polyurethane

Thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPUs) foams are valued for their low density, energy absorption, low thermal conductivity, and, in general, tunable properties. These features make them ideal for applications such as sportswear, flexible electronics, shape memory sensors, and soft robotics. Foaming of thermoplastic polymers is highly affected by the state of the polymer in terms of molecular chain arrangement, crystallinity, and residual stresses, which, in turn, are strongly influenced by the pre-processing history of the material. These complexities, together with multiphase morphology, make TPU foaming particularly challenging for achieving high expansion ratios. Preforms with different thermal and deformation histories are here selected to serve as models for exploring the relationship between pre-processing and foaming, with and without the addition of fillers. We analyze the expansion ratio, foam morphology, microstructural features, and post-foaming shrinkage of neat TPU, 3D-printed TPU structures, and TPU composites with multi-walled carbon nanotubes and aluminum nanoparticles using the batch foaming technique under varying processing conditions. Results show the critical role of pre-processing (in terms of printing parameters) and addition of fillers in influencing the foamability, and highlight microstructural control through pre-processing as a key strategy to tailor TPU foams for advanced structural and functional applications. Building on this, we introduce foam-induced morphing, validating mold-free batch foaming as a tool for designing lightweight systems with precisely tuned mechanics and morphing behaviors