Shaping the next-generation of fused deposition modeling three-dimensional-printing-based electrochemical (bio)sensing: Drawing a realistic horizon

The emergence of three-dimensional (3D)-printing as a fabrication tool has revolutionized the development of customized electrochemical (bio)sensors, offering exceptional design flexibility, cost-effective and rapid prototyping. Among the additive manufacturing technologies, fused deposition modeling (FDM) stands out for its affordability, ease of use, and the growing availability of conductive filaments, providing a new approach to produce tailored electrodes with enormous analytical potential and capabilities. This perspective presents a critical overview of the current opportunities and limitations of FDM-3D-printing as a technology for the design and development of electrochemical (bio)sensors, addressing material formulation, electrode architecture, surface modification strategies, analytical performance, and emerging applications. Current challenges and directions to overcome them are identified and discussed, drawing a realistic horizon for the next generation of FDM-3D-printed electrochemical (bio)sensors.