Virtual nature and psychological and psychophysiological outcomes: A systematic review

Evidence on the benefits of virtual nature is steadily increasing. In the current paper, we present a systematic review summarizing studies that examined the effects of virtual nature on psychological and psychophysiological outcomes up to March 2023. We found 236 records, of which 59 met the eligibility criteria. Results from quality assessment showed that most studies were of high or very high quality. Studies addressed three main outcomes: mood, stress, and restorativeness. Other outcomes such as environmental preference and pleasantness, cognitive performance, and nature connectedness received less attention, while others such as behavior and behavioral intentions, creativity, perceived safety, subjective vitality, and dental experience were hardly investigated at all. Findings generally point to a positive effect of virtual nature on its users, although further evidence is needed. Studies adopted experimental or quasi-experimental designs, used heterogeneous measures, and often sample sizes of unknown power. Future research could consider uninvestigated outcomes using larger studies with adequate power, specific samples, a focus on building new theories and on identifying best practices. Also, disentangling the optimal type and duration of virtual exposure and investigating the role of individual differences in its effectiveness for desirable psychological and psychophysiological changes is warranted.