Physical exercise and synaptic protection in human and pre-clinical models of multiple sclerosis

: In multiple sclerosis, only immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive drugs are recognized as disease-modifying therapies. however, in recent years, several data from pre-clinical and clinical studies suggested a possible role of physical exercise as disease-modifying therapy in multiple sclerosis. current evidence is sparse and often conflicting, and the mechanisms underlying the neuroprotective and antinflammatory role of exercise in multiple sclerosis have not been fully elucidated. Data, mainly derived from pre-clinical studies, suggest that exercise could enhance long-term potentiation and thus neuroplasticity, could reduce neuroinflammation and synaptopathy, and dampen astrogliosis and microgliosis. In humans, most trials focused on direct clinical and MRI outcomes, as investigating synaptic, neuroinflammatory, and pathological changes is not straightforward compared to animal models. the present review analyzed current evidence and limitations in research concerning the potential disease-modifying therapy effects of exercise in multiple sclerosis in animal models and human studies.