Targeting the tumor immune microenvironment with "nutraceuticals": from bench to clinical trials

the occurrence of immune effector cells in the tissue microenvironment during neoplastic progression is critical in determining tumor growth outcomes. on the other hand, tumors may also avoid immune system-mediated elimination by recruiting immunosuppressive leukocytes and soluble factors, which coordinate a tumor microenvironment that counteracts the efficiency of the antitumor immune response. checkpoint inhibitor therapy results have indicated a way forward via activation of the immune system against cancer. widespread evidence has shown that different compounds in foods, when administered as purified substances, can act as immunomodulators in humans and animals. although there is no universally accepted definition of nutraceuticals, the term identifies a wide category of natural compounds that may impact health and disease statuses and includes purified substances from natural sources, plant extracts, dietary supplements, vitamins, phytonutrients, and various products with combinations of functional ingredients. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the immunomodulatory effects of nutraceuticals with a special focus on the cancer microenvironment, highlighting the conceptual benefits or drawbacks and subtle cell-specific effects of nutraceuticals for envisioning future therapies employing nutraceuticals as chemoadjuvants.