In my dissertation, entitled Judeophoby and Anti-Nihilistic Novel in Russia at the End of the Nineteenth Century, I studied the Judeophobic core of Anti-Nihilistic Novels after the Russian-Turkish war (1877–1878), and their Anti-Semitic feelings particularly expressed by the fear of the Jew. The so-called objective Judeophoby – who focused mainly on to the real economic relations between Russian Jewry and the rest of the population; and occult Judeophoby – whose goal was to demonstrate the existence of a Jewish world conspiracy against Russia and Orthodox Christianity. This group of novels was not only one of the several expressions of the nineteenth-century Russian Judeophobic culture, but it also revitalized the public debate of the so-called Jewish Question and marked it with a sinister Judeophobic perspective, as I have demonstrated in my dissertation. The literary genre of anti-Nihilistic novels was produced by integrating a wide range of fictional and non-fictional sub-genres and creating, developing and employing myths of the occult Judeophoby. This represented the revolutionaries, i.e. the Nihilists as the reactionary army secretly lead by a Jewish hidden government. The use of certain Judeophobic literary mythemes can be linked to the modern Anti-Judaic, Anti-Semite and Xenophobic culture. In the twentieth century, it is possible to follow the growth of Nazi-Fascist and Totalitarian ideologies, up to our recent times when, after the collapse of the USSR, Anti-Semitism is again based on the Conspiracy Theory, a breathing worldwide distorted vision of events in global modern history, growing stronger and stronger in the contemporary Russian Federation, and abroad. First Chapter: The Fear of the Jew as a Mytheme in Russian Literary Culture: This chapter is conceptually divided in two sub-parts. In the first part, a substantial amount of consideration is given to the philological distinction between significance and signifier of several terms used in Russian language to name the Jew: “Iudei”, “Zhid”, “Evrei”, “Izrail’tianin”. Then the attention moves toward the existence of an Anti-Judaic Literature from Kievian Rus’ to Muscovy without any real need of the actual presence of the Jewish population. Further it re-visits its Anti-Judaic mythemes in the nineteenth-century Russian literature, as for example works by Bulgarin, Pushkin, Gogol’, Dostoevsky, Turgenev and Leskov, a.s.o. The second sub-part is dedicated to the Jewish Question in the nineteenth-century Imperial Russia, with special emphasis on the explanation, history and development of Russian Judeophobia: particular attention is given to the literary events linked to the 1863 Polish uprising, the 1877–1878 Russian-Turkish war and the 1881 terrorist act with the assassination of Alexander II. The pages of Judeophile and Judeophobic press heated debate on the Jewish Question clearly show the evolution of the Russian nationalistic circles’ Judeophobic feelings and ideas. Some examples are: Suvorin’s «Novoe Vremia», Shulgin’s «Kievlianin», Zabelin’s «Vilenskii Vestnik», Landau’s «Voskhod», «Novorossiiskii Telegraf», «Odesskii Vestnik», «Den’: Organ Russkikh-Evreev», a.s.o. The chapter ends with the demonstration of the existence of very narrow ties binding Judeophobic mythemes and the Russian Anti-Semitic ideology subculture. Second Chapter: Anti-Nihilistic Judeophobic Novel: This chapter is also divided in two sub-parts. Beginning from Katkov’s «Russkii Vestnik» and his influence on Anti-Nihilist writers, here the birth and development of the Anti-Nihilist novel is examined. The Anti-Nihilist movement Weltanschauung, is shaped into two types: the first type is typically Polonophobic, while the second, developed after the Russian-Turkish war, is mainly Judeophobic. The second part of the chapter analyses four Judeophobic novels seen in the Jewish Question context: Boleslav Markevich’s The Abyss, Nikolai Vagner’s The Dark Way, Ieronim Iasinsky’s On a Fresh Trail and Efron-Litvin’s Among Jews. Third Chapter: Vsevolod Krestovsky: First and Second Generation Anti-Nihilism: This chapter is entirely devoted to Vsevolod Krestovsky’s biography and bibliography. The second half of the third chapter pays particular attention to the close connection between Krestovsky’s work, the Russian-Jewish world and the Jewish Question, with special emphasis on Judeophobic elements, and Krestovsky’s review of Brafman’s National and International Jewish Brotherhoods and of The Book of Kahal. In this chapter it is demonstrated that Krestovsky’s Judeophobia, and a more general xenophobia, is deeply rooted in his works since his first novel The Slums of Saint Petersburg. Fourth Chapter: The Yid is Coming: The fourth chapter is again divided into two sub-parts. The first part, observes the Judeophobic core of Krestovsky’s trilogy The Yid is Coming. In this work, Krestovsky presents his visions of the society of the Russian Empire as subjugated by Russian Jewry involved in three different spheres of actions: the proper Jewish sphere located in the Pale of Settlement, the Christian Orthodox sphere in Saint Petersburg and at the Russian front in Russian-Turkish war, the Nihilist sphere in a small province of the Russian Empire. In the second part of this fourth chapter particular attention is paid to several reviews coeval with Krestovsky’s works, especially Simon Dubnov’s reviews of The Egyptian Darkness and Tamara Bendavid. Conclusions: In this dissertation it is demonstrated that Anti-Nihilist Belles-lettres are part of a more complex cultural system, together with reactionary conservative journals and pamphlets: it is the same cultural system that is going to generate the Protocols of the Sages of Zion. This cultural system re-elaborates national and international Judeophobic mythemes and works at producing a new original culture that is absorbed into the reactionary Judeophobic thought of Russian intellectuals. Less radical – but not less violent – than racist conceptions of Western-European Anti-Semitism, the Judeophobic Weltanschauung in nineteenth-century Russian culture presents the metamorphosis of a historical-literary, sometimes folkloric Yid to a real human being oppressed by bloody pogroms, false accusations and slanderous calumnies. The real Jew can expatriate or choose to emancipate himself thus abolishing the Pale of Settlement. However the requests made by the Jewish intellectuals are seen by the Judeophobic intellectuals in a particularly dark light: for them, emancipation and abolition of the Pale of Settlement represent the war against Imperial Russia made by the whole Jewish society with a particular evil aim: establishing a Jewish kingdom over the Russian Empire. This is the way that the conspiracy theory becomes not only a primary part of the nineteenth-century Russian culture, but also a fundamental myth used as a scapegoat for any ills of the Russian society, then, in another time and another space, becoming a scapegoat for the evils of the Nazi-Fascist Europe.
Nella tesi di dottorato Giudeofobia e Romanzo Antinichilista nella Russia di Fine Ottocento abbiamo studiato il nucleo giudeofobico dei romanzi antinichilisti dopo la guerra russo-turca (1877-1878) e i sentimenti antisemiti particolarmente espressi dalla “paura dell’ebreo”: nel primo caso si tratta della cosiddetta “giudeofobia oggettiva”, che si focalizzava principalmente sulle reali relazioni economiche tra gli ebrei russi e il resto della popolazione; nel secondo caso della “giudeofobia occulta”, il cui scopo era di dimostrare l’esistenza di una cospirazione ebraica mondiale contro la Russia e la cristianità ortodossa. Questo gruppo di romanzi non rappresentò solamente una delle diverse espressioni della cultura giudeofobica della Russia ottocentesca, ma rivitalizzò anche il dibattito pubblico sulla cosiddetta “questione ebraica” contrassegnandolo con una sinistra visione giudeofobica, come abbiamo dimostrato in tesi. Nel genere letterario dei romanzi antinichilisti, prodotto attraverso l’integrazione di una vasta gamma di sottogeneri narrativi e non-narrativi, si creavano, si sviluppavano e si rielaboravano i miti della giudeofobia occulta. In questo genere i rivoluzionari, cioè i nichilisti, erano rappresentati come un esercito reazionario segretamente guidato da un occulto governo ebraico. L’uso di certi mitemi letterari giudeofobici può essere collegato alla cultura antigiudaica, antisemita e xenofobica dell’epoca moderna. Nel corso del ventesimo secolo è infatti possibile seguire il suo sviluppo nelle ideologie del nazi-fascismo e dei governi totalitari, fino a tempi più recenti quando, dopo il collasso dell’Unione Sovietica, ha trovato nuovamente spazio, in Russia come all’estero, la teoria della cospirazione ebraica, cioè una visione distorta, a livello mondiale, degli eventi della storia moderna. Capitolo I°: La paura dell’ebreo come mitema nella cultura letteraria russa Questo capitolo è concettualmente diviso in due parti. Nella prima parte viene data grande attenzione alla distinzione filologica tra significante e significato dei diversi termini usati in russo per nominare l’ebreo: “Iudej”, “Žid”, “Evrej”, “Izrail’tjanin”. Si esamina poi la letteratura antigiudaica, dalla Rus’ kieviana alla Moscovia. Successivamente ci si sofferma sulla rivisitazione di tali mitemi antigiudaici nella letteratura russa del XIX° secolo, in particolare in Bulgarin, Puškin, Gogol’, Dostoevskij, Turgenev, Leskov, ecc. La seconda parte è dedicata alla questione ebraica nell’Impero russo nel corso del XIX° secolo, con un’enfasi speciale alla storia e allo sviluppo della giudeofobia russa: particolare attenzione è data alle ripercussioni letterarie degli eventi legati alla rivolta polacca del 1863, alla guerra russo-turca del 1877-1878, e all’assassinio dello zar Alessandro II nel 1881. L’acceso dibattito sulla questione ebraica tra gli organi di stampa giudeofobici e giudeofili mostra chiaramente l’evoluzione delle idee e dei sentimenti giudeofobici dei circoli nazionalisti russi. Alcuni organi di stampa presi ad esempio sono «Novoe Vremja» di Suvorin, «Kievljanin» di Šulgin, «Vilenskij Vestnik» di Zabelin, «Voschod» di Landau, «Novorossijskij Telegraf», «Odesskij Vestnik», «Den’: Organ Russkich-Evreev». Il capitolo termina con la dimostrazione dell’esistenza di legami molto stretti tra i mitemi giudeofobici e la subcultura dell’antisemitismo russo. Capitolo II°: Il romanzo antinichilista giudeofobico Anche questo capitolo è diviso in due parti. A cominciare dal «Russkij Vestnik» di Katkov e dall’influsso che ebbe sugli scrittori antinichilisti, in questa parte si esaminano nascita ed evoluzione del romanzo antinichilista. La Weltanschauung del movimento antinichilista va in due direzioni, la prima delle quali è tipicamente polonofobica, mentre la seconda, che si sviluppa dopo la guerra russo-turca, è prettamente giudeofobica. Nella seconda parte sono presi in analisi quattro romanzi giudeofobici, esaminati nel contesto della questione ebraica: L’abisso di Boleslav Markevič, La via oscura di Nikolaj Vagner, Sulle tracce fresche di Ieronim Jasinskij, Tra gli ebrei di Savelij Efron-Litvin. Capitolo III°: V.V. Krestovskij: antinichilismo di prima e seconda generazione Il capitolo è interamente dedicato alla biografia e bibliografia di Vsevolod Krestovskij. Nella seconda parte ci si sofferma particolarmente sulla stretta connessione tra l’opera letteraria di Krestovskij, il mondo russo-ebraico e la questione ebraica, con una speciale enfasi degli elementi giudeofobici, e sulla recensione da parte di Krestovskij dei noti volumi di Jacob Brafman Le confraternite ebraiche nazionali ed internazionali e Il libro del Kahal. In questo capitolo si dimostra quanto la giudeofobia di Krestovskij – e più in generale la sua xenophobia – sia profondamente radicata sin dal primo celebre romanzo I bassifondi di Pietroburgo. Capitolo IV°: L’ebreo avanza Quest’ultimo capitolo è a sua volta diviso in due parti. Nella prima parte si osserva il nucleo giudeofobico nella trilogia di Krestovskij L’ebreo avanza. In quest’opera Krestovskij presenta la sua personale visione dell’Impero Russo. La società russa, secondo lo scrittore, è soggiogata dagli ebrei operanti in tre diverse sfere d’azione: la sfera propriamente ebraica collocata nella zona di residenza, la sfera del cristianesimo ortodosso a Pietroburgo e al fronte della guerra russo-turca, la sfera nichilista in una piccolissima provincia dell’Impero. Nella seconda parte particolare attenzione è data alle diverse recensioni ottocentesche delle opere di Krestovskij, in particolare quelle che Simon Dubnov scrive di La tenebra egizia e Tamara Bendavid. Conclusioni: Nella tesi di dottorato abbiamo dimostrato che la letteratura antinichilista, assieme alla pubblicistica e alla pamphlettistica degli intellettuali conservatori, è parte di un più complesso sistema culturale. Si tratta dello stesso sistema culturale che genererà i Protocolli dei Savi di Sion. Questo sistema culturale rielabora mitemi giudeofobici nazionali e internazionali ed opera per produrre una nuova cultura originale che viene assorbita nel pensiero giudeofobico reazionario degli intellettuali russi. Con una visione meno radicale e al contempo non meno violenta delle concezioni razziste dell’antisemitismo dell’Europa occidentale, nella cultura giudeofobica russa del XIX° secolo si assiste alla metamorfosi della figura storico-letteraria e a volte folklorica dell’ebreo in quella di un reale essere umano oppresso da sanguinosi pogrom, false accuse e calunnie infamanti. L’ebreo reale potrebbe espatriare o scegliere di emanciparsi attraverso l’abolizione della zona di residenza. Ma le richieste degli intellettuali ebrei sono percepite dagli intellettuali giudeofobi con particolare maldisposizione: per i giudeofobi, infatti, l’emancipazione e l’abolizione della zona di residenza sono chiari elementi di una guerra mossa contro l’Impero Russo dall’intera società ebraica, il cui scopo malvagio è stabilire un regno ebraico nell’Impero Russo. In questo modo la teoria della cospirazione diviene non solo una componente primaria della cultura russa del XIX° secolo ma anche un mito fondamentale usato come capro espiatorio per qualsiasi male della società russa, e, a posteriori, il capro espiatorio di tutti i mali nell’Europa nazi-fascista.
Cifariello, A. (2010). Giudeofobia e romanzo antinichilista nella Russia di fine Ottocento [10.58015/cifariello-alessandro_phd2010-08-09].
Giudeofobia e romanzo antinichilista nella Russia di fine Ottocento
CIFARIELLO, ALESSANDRO
2010-08-09
Abstract
In my dissertation, entitled Judeophoby and Anti-Nihilistic Novel in Russia at the End of the Nineteenth Century, I studied the Judeophobic core of Anti-Nihilistic Novels after the Russian-Turkish war (1877–1878), and their Anti-Semitic feelings particularly expressed by the fear of the Jew. The so-called objective Judeophoby – who focused mainly on to the real economic relations between Russian Jewry and the rest of the population; and occult Judeophoby – whose goal was to demonstrate the existence of a Jewish world conspiracy against Russia and Orthodox Christianity. This group of novels was not only one of the several expressions of the nineteenth-century Russian Judeophobic culture, but it also revitalized the public debate of the so-called Jewish Question and marked it with a sinister Judeophobic perspective, as I have demonstrated in my dissertation. The literary genre of anti-Nihilistic novels was produced by integrating a wide range of fictional and non-fictional sub-genres and creating, developing and employing myths of the occult Judeophoby. This represented the revolutionaries, i.e. the Nihilists as the reactionary army secretly lead by a Jewish hidden government. The use of certain Judeophobic literary mythemes can be linked to the modern Anti-Judaic, Anti-Semite and Xenophobic culture. In the twentieth century, it is possible to follow the growth of Nazi-Fascist and Totalitarian ideologies, up to our recent times when, after the collapse of the USSR, Anti-Semitism is again based on the Conspiracy Theory, a breathing worldwide distorted vision of events in global modern history, growing stronger and stronger in the contemporary Russian Federation, and abroad. First Chapter: The Fear of the Jew as a Mytheme in Russian Literary Culture: This chapter is conceptually divided in two sub-parts. In the first part, a substantial amount of consideration is given to the philological distinction between significance and signifier of several terms used in Russian language to name the Jew: “Iudei”, “Zhid”, “Evrei”, “Izrail’tianin”. Then the attention moves toward the existence of an Anti-Judaic Literature from Kievian Rus’ to Muscovy without any real need of the actual presence of the Jewish population. Further it re-visits its Anti-Judaic mythemes in the nineteenth-century Russian literature, as for example works by Bulgarin, Pushkin, Gogol’, Dostoevsky, Turgenev and Leskov, a.s.o. The second sub-part is dedicated to the Jewish Question in the nineteenth-century Imperial Russia, with special emphasis on the explanation, history and development of Russian Judeophobia: particular attention is given to the literary events linked to the 1863 Polish uprising, the 1877–1878 Russian-Turkish war and the 1881 terrorist act with the assassination of Alexander II. The pages of Judeophile and Judeophobic press heated debate on the Jewish Question clearly show the evolution of the Russian nationalistic circles’ Judeophobic feelings and ideas. Some examples are: Suvorin’s «Novoe Vremia», Shulgin’s «Kievlianin», Zabelin’s «Vilenskii Vestnik», Landau’s «Voskhod», «Novorossiiskii Telegraf», «Odesskii Vestnik», «Den’: Organ Russkikh-Evreev», a.s.o. The chapter ends with the demonstration of the existence of very narrow ties binding Judeophobic mythemes and the Russian Anti-Semitic ideology subculture. Second Chapter: Anti-Nihilistic Judeophobic Novel: This chapter is also divided in two sub-parts. Beginning from Katkov’s «Russkii Vestnik» and his influence on Anti-Nihilist writers, here the birth and development of the Anti-Nihilist novel is examined. The Anti-Nihilist movement Weltanschauung, is shaped into two types: the first type is typically Polonophobic, while the second, developed after the Russian-Turkish war, is mainly Judeophobic. The second part of the chapter analyses four Judeophobic novels seen in the Jewish Question context: Boleslav Markevich’s The Abyss, Nikolai Vagner’s The Dark Way, Ieronim Iasinsky’s On a Fresh Trail and Efron-Litvin’s Among Jews. Third Chapter: Vsevolod Krestovsky: First and Second Generation Anti-Nihilism: This chapter is entirely devoted to Vsevolod Krestovsky’s biography and bibliography. The second half of the third chapter pays particular attention to the close connection between Krestovsky’s work, the Russian-Jewish world and the Jewish Question, with special emphasis on Judeophobic elements, and Krestovsky’s review of Brafman’s National and International Jewish Brotherhoods and of The Book of Kahal. In this chapter it is demonstrated that Krestovsky’s Judeophobia, and a more general xenophobia, is deeply rooted in his works since his first novel The Slums of Saint Petersburg. Fourth Chapter: The Yid is Coming: The fourth chapter is again divided into two sub-parts. The first part, observes the Judeophobic core of Krestovsky’s trilogy The Yid is Coming. In this work, Krestovsky presents his visions of the society of the Russian Empire as subjugated by Russian Jewry involved in three different spheres of actions: the proper Jewish sphere located in the Pale of Settlement, the Christian Orthodox sphere in Saint Petersburg and at the Russian front in Russian-Turkish war, the Nihilist sphere in a small province of the Russian Empire. In the second part of this fourth chapter particular attention is paid to several reviews coeval with Krestovsky’s works, especially Simon Dubnov’s reviews of The Egyptian Darkness and Tamara Bendavid. Conclusions: In this dissertation it is demonstrated that Anti-Nihilist Belles-lettres are part of a more complex cultural system, together with reactionary conservative journals and pamphlets: it is the same cultural system that is going to generate the Protocols of the Sages of Zion. This cultural system re-elaborates national and international Judeophobic mythemes and works at producing a new original culture that is absorbed into the reactionary Judeophobic thought of Russian intellectuals. Less radical – but not less violent – than racist conceptions of Western-European Anti-Semitism, the Judeophobic Weltanschauung in nineteenth-century Russian culture presents the metamorphosis of a historical-literary, sometimes folkloric Yid to a real human being oppressed by bloody pogroms, false accusations and slanderous calumnies. The real Jew can expatriate or choose to emancipate himself thus abolishing the Pale of Settlement. However the requests made by the Jewish intellectuals are seen by the Judeophobic intellectuals in a particularly dark light: for them, emancipation and abolition of the Pale of Settlement represent the war against Imperial Russia made by the whole Jewish society with a particular evil aim: establishing a Jewish kingdom over the Russian Empire. This is the way that the conspiracy theory becomes not only a primary part of the nineteenth-century Russian culture, but also a fundamental myth used as a scapegoat for any ills of the Russian society, then, in another time and another space, becoming a scapegoat for the evils of the Nazi-Fascist Europe.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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