Colorectal cancer is the second to the fourth most common cancer in industrialized countries. Baseline mutation rates are insufficient to account for the multiple mutations that are required for cancer to develop. Genomic instability is now recognized as an essential cellular feature that accompanies the acquisition of these mutations. In colon cancer, at least 3 distinct pathways of genomic instability have been described, the chromosomal instability, microsatellite instability (MSI), and the so-called CpG island methylator phenotype pathways, each with distinctive tumor genotypes and phenotypes. MSI is commonly caused by loss of the DNA mismatch repair (MMR) system, which normally recognizes and repairs mismatched nucleotides and insertion/deletion loops caused by slippage of DNA polymerase. MSI occurs in hereditary as well as sporadic CRC. In Lynch syndrome, responsible for 2-5% of all CRC cases, a germline mutation in a MMR gene accounts for more than 90% of cases, whereas in 10-15% of sporadic CRCs MSI is due to loss of expression of a MMR gene (most commonly hMLH1) caused by epigenetic silencing. In Lynch syndrome, carcinogenesis proceeds through the adenoma-carcinoma sequence. Although the number of polyps in Lynch patients appears to be similar to the general population, the polyps are more likely to occur at a younger age, have a predilection for the proximal colon, be larger, display villous features or high-grade dysplasia, and most importantly, grow rapidly and progress to invasive cancer in less than 3 years. As the recognition of Lynch is increasing in the population, many individuals with suspected Lynch now undergo routine colonoscopic screening with polypectomy. In such a scenario, there is no colon cancer tissue available for MSI and IHC testing. In this thesis, we present the results of a study that was undertaken to test the hypothesis that MSI testing and IHC analysis in pre-cancerous colorectal adenomas instead of colorectal cancers may be an alternative approach to screen for Lynch syndrome. MSI analysis, IHC staining for MMR proteins or both detected DNA repair deficiency in 58%, 70%, and 73% of the Lynch-associated adenomas, respectively, and this included adenomas smaller than 5 mm. Thus, in the workup of patients suspected to have a germline MMR gene mutation, it is reasonable to begin with MSI and IHC analyses of adenomas, and our data suggest that IHC testing alone is nearly as sensitive as a combined approach. Positive results can be utilized to direct germline genetic testing. However, a negative MSI or IHC test result in an adenoma should be interpreted cautiously and cannot be used to formally exclude the diagnosis of Lynch syndrome if other clinical features suggest the diagnosis. Nevertheless, this approach would expand the diagnostic testing options in cases with suspected Lynch and increase the opportunities to recognize the syndrome before the development of invasive cancer. The clinical behavior of MSI tumors is distinctive, and the most intriguing and consistently described feature is the enhanced survival benefit that does not appear to be attributable to differences in therapeutic response. The molecular basis for the prognostic advantage due to MSI is not clearly established. The most commonly mutated gene in tumors with MSI is the transforming growth factor-β receptor II (TGFBR2) gene, which harbors an (A)10 microsatellite that undergoes a frame shift. This mutation leads to a disruption in the TGF-β signaling, which plays a dual role in tumorigenesis: in early stages it mediates tumor-suppressive effects whereas, paradoxically, at later may enhance tumor progression due to its ability to inhibit cell death from growth factor deprivation, suppress immune function, and induce an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). In this thesis we provide a potential molecular explanation for the favorable outcome observed in MSI tumors. We show that TGFBR2 mutations, observed in up to 90% of CRCs with MSI, interfere with TGF-β-induced EMT, an important component of cancer progression, and therefore reduce the migratory and invasive capabilities of cancer cells. Tumors with MSI but without TGFBR2 mutations undergo EMT in response to TGF-β1, suggesting that TGFBR2 genotype and not MSI status per se may be the key determinant of the EMT response and ultimately, prognosis. In addition, these findings suggest a rationale for the therapeutic inhibition of TGF-β signaling in MSS colorectal tumors.
Il carcinoma del colon-retto e' una delle neoplasie con maggior incidenza nella popolazione generale ed una delle maggiori cause di morte per neoplasia, in entrambi i sessi. L’acquisizione di una diffusa instabilità genetica e' essenziale per il suo sviluppo. Instabilità a livello dei microsatelliti o MSI, e' comunemente causata da un’alterazione a livello dei geni del MisMatch Repair (MMR) system, meccanismo multienzimatico deputato al mantenimento della stabilità dell'informazione genetica, che corregge i disappaiamenti di base e le anse di inserzione/delezione che si originano durante la replicazione del DNA. Instabilità microsatellitare si osserva nella Sindrome di Lynch, la forma più comune di carcinoma del colon-retto su base ereditaria, causata da difetti nella linea germinale di uno dei geni del MMR, e nel 10-15% dei carcinomi sporadici del colon-retto per silencing epigenetico del gene hMLH1. Nella Syndrome di Lynch la carcinogenesi procede attraverso la sequenza adenoma-carcinoma. Tuttavia, sebbene il numero di adenomi in pazienti con Lynch sia simile a quello della popolazione generale, questi si osservano in età più precoce, hanno una predilezione per il colon prossimale, sono più voluminosi, classificati istologicamente come villosi, e crescono rapidamente e progrediscono in una forma invasive in meno di tre anni. Uno dei maggiori problemi in individui con sospetta Sindrome di Lynch e' l’assenza di tessuto tumorale su cui effettuare tests di instabilità microsatellitare. Nella presente tesi, utilizzando una popolazione altamente selezionata di individui affetti da Sindrome di Lynch, dimostriamo come l’analisi molecolare di adenomi colo-rettali possa avere un ruolo nella diagnostica. Utilizzando un’analisi di instabilità dei microsatelliti e la valutazione immunoistochimica dell’espressione delle proteine codificate dai geni del MMR su tessuto tumorale incluso in paraffina, abbiamo infatti identificato un difetto nel MMR system nel 73% degli adenomi asportati. Le singole metodiche hanno identificato alterazioni nel 58% e 70% dei casi, rispettivamente. Così nel work-up di individui con sospetta Lynch, e’ ragionevole iniziare con studi di MSI ed IHC su adenomi, ed i nostri dati suggeriscono che l’IHC da sola e’ sensibile quanto un approccio combinato. Sebbene un risultato positivo può dirigere la successiva analisi genetica, un risultato negativo su un adenoma deve essere interpretato con cautela e non dovrebbe essere utilizzato per escludere la diagnosi se altre caratteristiche cliniche suggeriscono la presenza di Lynch. Tumori del colon-retto con instabilità microsatellitare sono caratterizzati da una prognosi particolarmente favorevole ma, ad oggi, le basi molecolari di tale fenomeno non sono note. Il gene più frequentemente mutato in tumori con MSI e’ il recettore di tipo II per il transforming growth factor-β (TGFBR2), il cui signaling media effetti soppressori nelle fasi precoci di sviluppo tumorale, mentre nelle fasi più tardive incrementa la progressione tumorale anche attraverso l'induzione di una transizione epitelio-mesenchima (EMT). Nella presente tesi, utilizzando una serie di linee cellulari a differente stato microsatellitare e con un recettore wild-type o mutato dimostriamo come linee con instabilità microsatellitare ed un recettore mutato, al seguito del trattamento con TGF-β, non vengono indotte in EMT, al contrario di linee con MSI ma senza mutazioni in TGFBR2. Inoltre, nella nostra analisi di 129 casi di tumori del colon-retto con o senza instabilità microsatellitare, la perdita di marcatori epiteliali e l’acquisizione di marcatori mesenchimali sono associati non solo con variabili clinicopatologiche di cattiva prognosi ma anche con l'assenza di instabilita’ microsatellitare. Collettivamente, i nostri dati in vitro ed in campioni umani suggeriscono che mutazioni nel TGFBR2 interferiscono con l’induzione di EMT da parte del TGF-β e pertanto riducono le capacita’ migratorie ed invasive delle cellule tumorali. Oltre a fornire una spiegazione a base molecolare per la prognosi favorevole costantemente osservata in tumori del colon-retto con instabilità microsatellitare, questi risultati suggeriscono un razionale per l’inibizione terapeutica del signaling del TGF-β in tumori del colon-retto senza MSI.
Pino, M.s. (2010). The Microsatellite instability phenotype in human colorectal carcinoma.
The Microsatellite instability phenotype in human colorectal carcinoma
PINO, MARIA SIMONA
2010-08-09
Abstract
Colorectal cancer is the second to the fourth most common cancer in industrialized countries. Baseline mutation rates are insufficient to account for the multiple mutations that are required for cancer to develop. Genomic instability is now recognized as an essential cellular feature that accompanies the acquisition of these mutations. In colon cancer, at least 3 distinct pathways of genomic instability have been described, the chromosomal instability, microsatellite instability (MSI), and the so-called CpG island methylator phenotype pathways, each with distinctive tumor genotypes and phenotypes. MSI is commonly caused by loss of the DNA mismatch repair (MMR) system, which normally recognizes and repairs mismatched nucleotides and insertion/deletion loops caused by slippage of DNA polymerase. MSI occurs in hereditary as well as sporadic CRC. In Lynch syndrome, responsible for 2-5% of all CRC cases, a germline mutation in a MMR gene accounts for more than 90% of cases, whereas in 10-15% of sporadic CRCs MSI is due to loss of expression of a MMR gene (most commonly hMLH1) caused by epigenetic silencing. In Lynch syndrome, carcinogenesis proceeds through the adenoma-carcinoma sequence. Although the number of polyps in Lynch patients appears to be similar to the general population, the polyps are more likely to occur at a younger age, have a predilection for the proximal colon, be larger, display villous features or high-grade dysplasia, and most importantly, grow rapidly and progress to invasive cancer in less than 3 years. As the recognition of Lynch is increasing in the population, many individuals with suspected Lynch now undergo routine colonoscopic screening with polypectomy. In such a scenario, there is no colon cancer tissue available for MSI and IHC testing. In this thesis, we present the results of a study that was undertaken to test the hypothesis that MSI testing and IHC analysis in pre-cancerous colorectal adenomas instead of colorectal cancers may be an alternative approach to screen for Lynch syndrome. MSI analysis, IHC staining for MMR proteins or both detected DNA repair deficiency in 58%, 70%, and 73% of the Lynch-associated adenomas, respectively, and this included adenomas smaller than 5 mm. Thus, in the workup of patients suspected to have a germline MMR gene mutation, it is reasonable to begin with MSI and IHC analyses of adenomas, and our data suggest that IHC testing alone is nearly as sensitive as a combined approach. Positive results can be utilized to direct germline genetic testing. However, a negative MSI or IHC test result in an adenoma should be interpreted cautiously and cannot be used to formally exclude the diagnosis of Lynch syndrome if other clinical features suggest the diagnosis. Nevertheless, this approach would expand the diagnostic testing options in cases with suspected Lynch and increase the opportunities to recognize the syndrome before the development of invasive cancer. The clinical behavior of MSI tumors is distinctive, and the most intriguing and consistently described feature is the enhanced survival benefit that does not appear to be attributable to differences in therapeutic response. The molecular basis for the prognostic advantage due to MSI is not clearly established. The most commonly mutated gene in tumors with MSI is the transforming growth factor-β receptor II (TGFBR2) gene, which harbors an (A)10 microsatellite that undergoes a frame shift. This mutation leads to a disruption in the TGF-β signaling, which plays a dual role in tumorigenesis: in early stages it mediates tumor-suppressive effects whereas, paradoxically, at later may enhance tumor progression due to its ability to inhibit cell death from growth factor deprivation, suppress immune function, and induce an epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). In this thesis we provide a potential molecular explanation for the favorable outcome observed in MSI tumors. We show that TGFBR2 mutations, observed in up to 90% of CRCs with MSI, interfere with TGF-β-induced EMT, an important component of cancer progression, and therefore reduce the migratory and invasive capabilities of cancer cells. Tumors with MSI but without TGFBR2 mutations undergo EMT in response to TGF-β1, suggesting that TGFBR2 genotype and not MSI status per se may be the key determinant of the EMT response and ultimately, prognosis. In addition, these findings suggest a rationale for the therapeutic inhibition of TGF-β signaling in MSS colorectal tumors.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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