Species differences in characters involved in reproductive isolation are candidates for factors that caused speciation. It is not easy to understand whether the species differences that we can detect have been actually involved in speciation, because most species pairs have been accumulating genetic differences since the speciation process was completed often developing multiple reproductive isolating mechanisms. In Hipparchia species and in many taxa of Satyrine butterflies, both sexes have evolved complex genitalia that can mechanically impede the copulation between different species while males have scent located in patches or dispersed on their wings, probably pheromone releaser. Surprisingly, in spite of a growing amount of information on morphology and rearing methods of several species, only the works of Tinbergen on H. semele and some recent research specifically deal with mating behaviour of the genus Hipparchia. Courtship is an important character linked to fitness and can evolve in response to female mate choice, to ensure sex identity and quality of a potential mate. It can also be a major pre-mating isolating mechanism in butterflies and many other species. The aim of this work was to study in detail the reproductive behaviour of two sibling species, Hipparchia fagi and H. alcyone in order to understand which species -specific, visual, behavioural or chemical stimuli are involved in courtship. These two species are sympatric and syntopic at 800 - 1000 m of altitude; adult flight periods overlap in July and August and take place in similar habitats; the two butterflies have very similar wing patterns and sometimes it is very difficult to recognise the species without the exam of male and female genitalia structures. The behavioural study was conducted daily, both in the wild and in captivity, during the reproductive seasons in some areas near Vallemare (1,100 m a.s.l.) in the Central Appennines (Rieti, Italy). The observations were carried out with captive and reared individuals inside a large outdoor “flight cage” built in the same locality and in the garden of the Laboratori di Ecologia Sperimentale ed Acquacoltura (University of Roma Tor Vergata). In this study, different aspects of the butterfly reproductive behaviour are described. First, the ethogram and the sequential structure of courtship are showed; second, various parameters of each courtship step are measured; third, the results in H. fagi are compared with the behaviour of the species H. alcyone; fourth, the mating system of each species is described. Moreover, the male chemical patterns were detected by the application of the Electronic Nose and the results in H. fagi were compared with those of H.alcyone. The study reveals general patterns of sexual behaviour in H. fagi and in H. alcyone, that are mainly identical in both species: perching strategy, flight pursuit and courtship. Likewise, the two species show a similar polygynous mating system, with female monandry. In both species, the results revealed a highly stereotypic courtship that consists of six steps (Fanning, Circling, Bowing, Antenna orientation, Copulation attempt e Clasping) leading to the copulation. Courtship most likely follows up to the end, once the male has started with the sequence. However, the development of the courtship seems to respond to the female behaviour, reflecting the complexity of the male -female interaction during the whole sequence. In both species courtship sequence seems to mostly be the outcome of the female’s reaction: her interruptions can produce fragmented sequences and, more interestingly, can induce the repetition of the sequence around a specific point, with the male persisting in courting the female. Male can mate after displaying the courtship sequence once, but mostly repeats the whole sequence or part of it more than once, restarting from Bowing or previous steps, likely waiting for female signals. The behavioural sequential analysis also showed that a male displays the initial and the final phases of the sequence only once, while he can repeat Bowing and Antenna orientation a lot of times in the same sequence. The comparison between H. fagi and H. alcyone showed quantitative interesting differences. The frequency of Bowing is the unique behavioural character that allows to tell apart the two study species , as H. alcyone shows a greater frequency than H. fagi. In satyrine butterflies, male androconia provide the necessary cue, probably of chemical nature, for a successful courtship, and the display of Bowing is likely of primary importance for the production of male pheromones. During Bowing the male repeatedly bashes or strokes the female’s antennae against the androconial scales on his forewing dorsal surface. Bowing could convey chemotactic information to the female, and its repetition within a sequence could represent a mechanical stimulation for her, with the secretion from androconial patches on the male’s forewings. This phase could be of great importance, as a persistent male could drive a female at first unreceptive to eventually mate. Scents and visual stimuli could have an essential role in mating communication: they could operate synergistically and help the female in her decision of acceptance or rejection of a specific male; they could function as sexspecific signals facilitating sexual identification during courtship. The detection of the butterfly smell by Electronic Nose revealed a similar male chemical pattern in both species. In insects and especially in butterflies, pheromones are chemical signals whose composition varies enormously between species and they typically comprise more than one active component. Frequently sympatric species show the same pheromone components, but in different combinations or ratios. In absence of experimental crossability tests between species, it is not possible to be investigate if different visual (i.e., different performance of a male action) or chemical stimuli would change the female response and impede crossmating. However, the behavioural differences observed in H. fagi and H. alcyone could act as important discordant cues, in case of encounters with heterospecific females, and could reflect the presence of different chemical cues (not yet identified) between the two species.
Il genere Hipparchia Fabricius è uno dei generi tassonomicamente più difficile dei satiridi paleartici. Esso comprende gruppi di taxa con caratteristiche esterne simili, ma con profonde differenze nei genitali maschili e negli androconi. Studi pregressi sul comportamento hanno evidenziato in alcune specie l’esistenza di un corteggiamento articolato per l'accoppiamento. La maggior parte delle volte, le sequenze di corteggiamento rilevate sono comparabili tra specie, ma possono presentare differenze nell’esecuzione e nell’ordine dei moduli comportamentali comuni; in altri casi, invece, sono caratterizzati da moduli esclusivi che presentano solo determinate specie. L’isolamento riproduttivo fra due specie è il risultato di un gran numero di meccanismi, più o meno indipendenti gli uni dagli altri, e l’importanza relativa dei vari fattori può cambiare da un gruppo di specie all’altro. La riproduzione tra specie animali, soprattutto simpatriche e strettamente affini, è comunemente impedita da una serie di fattori ecologici, comportamentali e citogenetici. Tra i meccanismi di isolamento riproduttivo precopula, quelli di tipo etologico costituiscono la classe più importante. Il funzionamento di tali meccanismi si basa essenzialmente sull’incompatibilità comportamentale dei segnali scambiati tra gli individui eterospecifici. In generale, in condizioni di allopatria , specie strettamente affini possono permettersi di utilizzare segnali di corteggiamento più generici (i.e., aspecifici), meno costosi e variabili, mentre in condizioni di simpatria la selezione naturale può favorire la diversificazione di atti di corteggiamento e di esibizioni sessuali articolate, mediate dalla scelta femminile, anche laddove non vi sia alcuna ibridazione eterospecifica. Questo lavoro di tesi ha l’obiettivo principale di approfondire lo studio del corteggiamento nelle due specie criptiche, Hipparchia fagi ed H. alcyone, al fine di comprendere quali stimoli, visivo-comportamentali ed, in misura preliminare, chimici, caratterizzano i due taxa ed assicurano l’accoppiamento tra individui conspecifici. Queste due specie sono simpatriche e sintopiche ad altitudini comprese tra 800 - 1000 m; gli adulti mostrano un periodo di volo sovrapposto (luglio -agosto) e frequentano habitat simili tra bosco ed aree ecotonali prato-bosco; inoltre sono molto simili nel pattern alare e di difficile determinazione, senza un attento esame delle strutture genitali maschili e femminili. Lo studio del comportamento sessuale in queste due specie è stato eseguito in natura su popolazioni localizzate nei pressi della Pineta (930 m) situata tra le località di Vallemare e Borbona (RI) nel Lazio. Alle osservazioni in natura sono state affiancate osservazioni all’interno di una voliera sia su individui selvatici, che su individui di allevamento, provenienti dalla stessa area di studio, presso i Laboratori di Ecologia Sperimentale ed Acquacoltura dell’Università di Roma Tor Vergata. Questo studio ha rivelato nelle due specie lo stesso sistema nuziale, una poliginia con monandria delle femmine, ed un pattern comportamentale sessuale molto simile: il maschio attende la femmina, posato sui tronchi d’albero come sulle pareti della voliera; al passaggio della femmina, prende volo e la insegue fino alla posa; segue quindi un rituale articolato dalla struttura temporale e dai meccanismi di interazione maschiofemmina analoghi nelle due specie. La sequenza di corteggiamento appare costituita dai sei moduli comportamentali: Fanning, Circling, Bowing, Antenna orientation, Copulation attempt e Clasping, eseguiti nell’ordine dato in entrambe le specie. Il maschio può ottenere l’accoppiamento dopo aver eseguito una sola volta la sequenza di corteggiamento, ma nella maggior parte dei casi, ciò avviene dopo la successione di più sequenze (o di frammenti di essa), probabilmente in risposta alla disponibilità ad accoppiarsi della femmina. Il comportamento della femmina sembra infatti influenzare l’esecuzione delle azioni del maschio, determinando la frammentazione della sequenza e la ripetizione dei singoli moduli o dell’intera sequenza. Nei rituali più articolati, il maschio tende a ricominciare la sequenza di corteggiamento dal Bowing o da moduli precedenti e, solo dopo un apparente consenso della femmina, può procedere nella sequenza fino alla copula. Le due specie, inoltre, mostrano un corteggiamento molto simile nelle tempistiche dei sei moduli comportamentali componenti la sequenza. In entrambe, infatti, i moduli iniziali (Fanning e Circling) e finali (Copulation attempt e Clasping) mostrano durate comparabili e sono eseguiti in media una sola volta nella sequenza di corteggiamento. I moduli centrali della sequenza (Bowing ed Antenna orientation) sono invece replicati molte volte, sempre in associazione, e caratterizzati da durate molto brevi. L’unico carattere comportamentale che distingue le due specie è la frequenza con cui il maschio effettua il Bowing: in H. alcyone sempre maggiore di quella misurata in H. fagi. Questo modulo sembra essere la fase cruciale del corteggiamento, sia per il numero di repliche sia per la sua perfomance. Nel Bowing infatti il maschio afferra e trattiene le antenne della femmina tra le ali anteriori facendole scivolare sulle sue squame androconiali, secretrici di feromoni. Moduli fortemente stereotipati, come il Bowing, probabilmente incrementano l’intensità del segnale ormonale rilasciato, assumendo un ruolo importante nella stimolazione della partner ad acconsentire alla copula. Queste osservazioni suggeriscono il coinvolgimento di segnali chimici, oltre che visivo-comportamentali, nell’interazione tra i sessi. Le indagini preliminari sul rilascio dei feromoni mediante l’applicazione del Naso elettronico hanno rilevato un simile pattern chimico dei composti volatili emessi dai maschi nelle due specie. Specie affini possono avere una simile composizione chimica del bouquet dei composti rilasciati e differire per la concentrazione relativa degli stessi composti. Non è facile determinare in quale misura le differenze rilevate nelle specie esaminate possano contribuire all’isolamento riproduttivo tra i due taxa, ma differenze quantitative comportamentali sembrano essere sufficienti ad impedire una perfetta sincronizzazione della disponibilità all’accoppiamento in molte specie animali e, soprattutto, in specie affini.
Pinzari, M. (2009). Corteggiamento e meccanismi di isolamento riproduttivo in due specie criptiche di farfalle del genere Hipparchia.
Corteggiamento e meccanismi di isolamento riproduttivo in due specie criptiche di farfalle del genere Hipparchia
PINZARI, MANUELA
2009-08-24
Abstract
Species differences in characters involved in reproductive isolation are candidates for factors that caused speciation. It is not easy to understand whether the species differences that we can detect have been actually involved in speciation, because most species pairs have been accumulating genetic differences since the speciation process was completed often developing multiple reproductive isolating mechanisms. In Hipparchia species and in many taxa of Satyrine butterflies, both sexes have evolved complex genitalia that can mechanically impede the copulation between different species while males have scent located in patches or dispersed on their wings, probably pheromone releaser. Surprisingly, in spite of a growing amount of information on morphology and rearing methods of several species, only the works of Tinbergen on H. semele and some recent research specifically deal with mating behaviour of the genus Hipparchia. Courtship is an important character linked to fitness and can evolve in response to female mate choice, to ensure sex identity and quality of a potential mate. It can also be a major pre-mating isolating mechanism in butterflies and many other species. The aim of this work was to study in detail the reproductive behaviour of two sibling species, Hipparchia fagi and H. alcyone in order to understand which species -specific, visual, behavioural or chemical stimuli are involved in courtship. These two species are sympatric and syntopic at 800 - 1000 m of altitude; adult flight periods overlap in July and August and take place in similar habitats; the two butterflies have very similar wing patterns and sometimes it is very difficult to recognise the species without the exam of male and female genitalia structures. The behavioural study was conducted daily, both in the wild and in captivity, during the reproductive seasons in some areas near Vallemare (1,100 m a.s.l.) in the Central Appennines (Rieti, Italy). The observations were carried out with captive and reared individuals inside a large outdoor “flight cage” built in the same locality and in the garden of the Laboratori di Ecologia Sperimentale ed Acquacoltura (University of Roma Tor Vergata). In this study, different aspects of the butterfly reproductive behaviour are described. First, the ethogram and the sequential structure of courtship are showed; second, various parameters of each courtship step are measured; third, the results in H. fagi are compared with the behaviour of the species H. alcyone; fourth, the mating system of each species is described. Moreover, the male chemical patterns were detected by the application of the Electronic Nose and the results in H. fagi were compared with those of H.alcyone. The study reveals general patterns of sexual behaviour in H. fagi and in H. alcyone, that are mainly identical in both species: perching strategy, flight pursuit and courtship. Likewise, the two species show a similar polygynous mating system, with female monandry. In both species, the results revealed a highly stereotypic courtship that consists of six steps (Fanning, Circling, Bowing, Antenna orientation, Copulation attempt e Clasping) leading to the copulation. Courtship most likely follows up to the end, once the male has started with the sequence. However, the development of the courtship seems to respond to the female behaviour, reflecting the complexity of the male -female interaction during the whole sequence. In both species courtship sequence seems to mostly be the outcome of the female’s reaction: her interruptions can produce fragmented sequences and, more interestingly, can induce the repetition of the sequence around a specific point, with the male persisting in courting the female. Male can mate after displaying the courtship sequence once, but mostly repeats the whole sequence or part of it more than once, restarting from Bowing or previous steps, likely waiting for female signals. The behavioural sequential analysis also showed that a male displays the initial and the final phases of the sequence only once, while he can repeat Bowing and Antenna orientation a lot of times in the same sequence. The comparison between H. fagi and H. alcyone showed quantitative interesting differences. The frequency of Bowing is the unique behavioural character that allows to tell apart the two study species , as H. alcyone shows a greater frequency than H. fagi. In satyrine butterflies, male androconia provide the necessary cue, probably of chemical nature, for a successful courtship, and the display of Bowing is likely of primary importance for the production of male pheromones. During Bowing the male repeatedly bashes or strokes the female’s antennae against the androconial scales on his forewing dorsal surface. Bowing could convey chemotactic information to the female, and its repetition within a sequence could represent a mechanical stimulation for her, with the secretion from androconial patches on the male’s forewings. This phase could be of great importance, as a persistent male could drive a female at first unreceptive to eventually mate. Scents and visual stimuli could have an essential role in mating communication: they could operate synergistically and help the female in her decision of acceptance or rejection of a specific male; they could function as sexspecific signals facilitating sexual identification during courtship. The detection of the butterfly smell by Electronic Nose revealed a similar male chemical pattern in both species. In insects and especially in butterflies, pheromones are chemical signals whose composition varies enormously between species and they typically comprise more than one active component. Frequently sympatric species show the same pheromone components, but in different combinations or ratios. In absence of experimental crossability tests between species, it is not possible to be investigate if different visual (i.e., different performance of a male action) or chemical stimuli would change the female response and impede crossmating. However, the behavioural differences observed in H. fagi and H. alcyone could act as important discordant cues, in case of encounters with heterospecific females, and could reflect the presence of different chemical cues (not yet identified) between the two species.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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